Spoken
language genre of speech
Characteristics of speech
Unplanned ~
·
Many non-fluency features
·
Usually an informal register
·
Phatic expressions
·
Non-standard grammar
Semi planned ~
·
Fewer non-fluency features
·
Usually a more formal register
·
Phatic expressions
·
More standard grammar
Planned ~
·
An absence of non-fluency features
·
Few deictic features
·
Formal register
·
Standard grammar
·
Addressing an audience
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We want to make contact with others – even if it's only to
say ‘hello'. These are known as phatic utterances.
We want to exchange ideas and social information with
friends. These are interactional exchanges.
We want to express how we feel. These are expressive
utterances.
We want to provide information. These are referential
utterances.
We want to get something done. These are transactional
exchanges.
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Permanence – When you
have a conversational normally it is not re4corded and therefore only stays in
your memory whereas writing can be re-read and remains permanent for as long as
the text is kept.
Expressing
feelings – Such as facial expressions, tones of voice and body
language when speaking however written language relies on expression of words,
punctuation and graphological features.
Moment in time – Spoken language is immediate where as written is not (unless you
are there when it is being written).
Context - Speech takes place in a particular
situation with all the participants aware of who is talking to whom about what.
This can lead to speakers not needing to be precise about certain details.
Interaction - Speech is usually an interactive
process between two or more people – it's active. Writing, on the other hand is
not dynamic in this way – the audience is more distant.
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Planned
Speeches ~
·
Of
all planned talk, planned speeches are probably as formal as it gets in the
spoken mode. They are usually very carefully written so as to have maximum
impact on the audience.
·
Rhetorical
questions can be asked – there's no reply expected and the answer is usually
obvious. The speaker can also ask a question and then follow it up with an
answer, thereby driving home a point
·
Emotive
language – powerful language with strong connotations – is designed to provoke
an emotional response from the audience.
·
The
use of listing (often in threes) adds weight to the line of argument and can
often have the effect of building up to an important point.
·
Carefully
chosen metaphors and similes can help to enrich the message by leaving the
audience with effective images.
Antithesis- Exact
opposites used for effect in certain types of language – particularly
persuasive language. For example, ‘strong’ and ‘weak’, ‘dark and light’.
Spoken
language and conversation
Conversation~
·
Signs
that speakers are ready for someone else to talk include stressing the final word,
asking a direct question, asking for assent, or even appearing to flounder for
the right words. Our utterances may also often become quieter as they are
drawing to a close. We use cues like these, often unwittingly, during every
conversation.
·
There's
normally no gap or overlap between one speaker and another. Estimates suggest
that only about 5% of our conversations are overlaps
·
The
Verbal cues you heard in the clip were: asking a direct question; mentioning
the name of the person you want to talk next or using tag questions to prompt a
response. Other verbal cues are dropping the volume of speech and elongating a
final syllable
·
There
are certain non-verbal cues a listener can use to encourage the speaker to let
them to take a turn. These include; leaning forward or increasing body tension
and nodding the head rapidly.
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Spontaneity
and expectation~
·
Most
interactions begin with an opening sequence which signals to a listener that we
want to talk. The more
formal the situation, the more formal the opening.
·
We
expect that certain utterances will be followed by others that fit our
expectations. For
example, we expect that a greeting will be followed by a returned greeting.
·
These
‘pairs' are the main building blocks of our conversations and are called adjacency
pairs or two-part exchanges.
·
Adjacency
pairs:
Have each part of the pair spoken by a different person, always have a
link, always involve a second utterance following on from the first (although
it may not follow on directly – there could be a short interruption).
·
The
‘chains' of adjacency pairs can be broken up or interrupted. This might happen
if, for example: someone comes into a room and joins in the conversation, the
flow of the conversation is temporarily redirected for a few utterances, perhaps
so that clarification can be sought
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Conversation analyst~
·
The
subject of conversations is called topics. A topic is usually decided by one
persona and stays that way until someone changes it. When a change of topic
takes place, it's known as a topic shift and the verbal cues to make the change
are called topic shifters.
·
Repairs
occur when there's a need to correct a mistake. Sometimes the speaker will
realise that s/he needs to make a correction
·
When
you are talking to someone it is important that you show you are taking an
interest in what they are saying. A way someone many do this is by giving
minimal responses like hum and uh hum.
·
When
we're aware that we're coming towards the end of a conversation, we usually try
to bring it to a close in a way that is socially acceptable and ‘polite'.
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Positive and
negative politeness~
·
In
the work place you follow three rules to be polite: don’t impose, give options
and make your receiver feel good.
·
Brown
& Levinson maintained that positive politeness is shown when we: show
people that we like/admire/have sympathy with them and make jokes (that we know
the person will like), avoid disagreements – e.g. by choosing ‘safe' topics to
talk about, or by softening our own disagreements, assert what we have in
common and are in agreement
·
Brown
& Levinson thought negative politeness is shown when we: are indirect to
avoid intrusion, use hedges or questions, defer to someone by giving a superior
form of address – e.g. ‘sir', are apologetic
·
Grice's
maxims illustrate the ‘rules' or principles of successful conversation and we
are conscious of when they are being flouted.
Systematic
frameworks for analysis
What is needed for AS essays:
A-LEVEL:
Knowledge, understanding, application, Clarity, Description, The above skills,
plus: Detail, comment, analysis, problem-solving Thinking for yourself Using
facts to back up opinion Introduction to research
